Belonging to a female-headed household increases the likelihood that children never attend or drop out from school. Family factors, such as wealth, education investment and educational background also reduce the likelihood that children are out of school. High municipality poverty rates increase the likelihood of children never attending school, but they also lead to lower dropout rates. In contrast, the availability of schools decreases the likelihood that children never attend school but it does not reduce dropout. Multilevel multinomial analyses show municipality education expenditure can help prevent dropout but it could not attract children to attend school to begin with. Hypotheses are tested using data from 221,392 children, nested in 136,182 households in 497 municipalities. Building on opportunity structure approach, we theorize that a set of municipality and household characteristics could either hinder or facilitate children to be out of school. We examine the relationship between municipality and household characteristics and the likelihood of children out of schooling. Which characteristics at the level of municipalities, households and children help to explain why children never attend or drop out from school in Indonesia? Some of the questions discussed in the four empirical chapter of the dissertation include: Which characteristics at the level of municipalities, households and children help to explain why children never attend or drop out from school in Indonesia? To what extent and under which conditions can variations in preschool participation be explained by differences in household-level and community-level resources, and what is the moderating role of social capital? To what extent did the decentralization of Indonesia’s educational sector affect (variability in) educational attainment at the provincial and municipal levels? How can variations in the (gender and parental socio-economic status related gaps of) academic achievement of students attending private Islamic schools be explained by ideological and organizational differences of their schools?
It suggests that the impact of and interplays between human, social, economic, political and infrastructural capital at the individual, household, school, community and government level are important on inequality in access to and quality of education in Indonesia.
It uses analyses drawn from a multilevel multi-resource framework involving various nation-wide surveys, administrative datasets and experts’ interview data from three non-governmental organizations in Indonesia to comprehend some of the mechanisms behind the unequal access to and quality of education. This dissertation studies the complex and multifaceted phenomenon of inequality in access to and quality of education. Although its efforts had noticeable impact, many of the targets to improve access to and quality of education nevertheless still have not been achieved and education inequality is still persistent. Indonesian government simultaneously improves access to and quality of education for all citizens.
Equal opportunity on education affects an individual’s life because it has the potential to improve the ability to think critically, to solve problems and to make appropriate decisions. However, increasing access to and quality of education alone is not sufficient without equitable learning for all. Improving access to and quality of education is necessary condition to prepare a skilled workforce to advance a country from one economic level to the next level.
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